The formation of state capitals in the U.S. was often driven by geography, politics, and economic growth. Initially, many states chose central locations to ensure accessibility.
For instance, Philadelphia was the nation’s temporary capital before Washington, D.C., was built. Austin, Texas, was selected in 1839 due to its central location and defensive advantages.
Over time, new capitals like Denver (1867) emerged due to population growth from events like the gold rush. These capitals symbolize the states’ evolving political, economic, and cultural landscapes.
Learn about the history and placement of our State Capitals.
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Capital Cities
The history of capital cities in the United States reflects the growth, conflict, and political evolution of the nation itself. From temporary settlements to a purpose-built federal district, the journey of America’s capitals offers insight into the nation’s priorities, geography, and compromises.
Pre-Federal Period (1774–1789)
Before the United States Constitution established a permanent seat of government, the American colonies and early United States used several temporary U.S. capitals. During the Revolutionary War and the Articles of Confederation period, the Continental Congress moved frequently due to wartime threats and political considerations.
Some of the early U.S. Capitals included:
- Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The most frequent host of the Continental Congress, Philadelphia was the largest city in America at the time, with a population of about 40,000 in the 1770s. It was the site of the First and Second Continental Congresses and where the Declaration of Independence was signed.
- York, Pennsylvania: Briefly served as the U.S. capital in 1777–1778 when British forces occupied Philadelphia.
- Princeton, New Jersey; Annapolis, Maryland; Trenton, New Jersey; and New York City: These cities also temporarily hosted the government.
New York City (1785–1790)
Following the Revolutionary War, New York City became the national capital under the Articles of Confederation and remained so briefly under the U.S. Constitution. It was here that George Washington took the first presidential oath of office in 1789. At the time, the city’s population was approximately 33,000, making it one of the largest urban centers in the young nation.
Philadelphia (1790–1800)
After the Residence Act of 1790 was passed, which authorized the creation of a permanent capital along the Potomac River, Philadelphia was designated as the temporary U.S. capital for ten years. During this decade, the city expanded and solidified its role as a hub of American politics, commerce, and culture. Its population grew to over 41,000 by 1800.
State Capitals
While Washington, D.C. is the nation’s capital, each U.S. state has its own capital city. These capitals were typically chosen for their geographic centrality or political compromise. For example:
- Sacramento, California became the state capital during the Gold Rush era due to its strategic location on the Sacramento River.
- Austin, Texas, was chosen to promote settlement in the interior and to create distance from coastal threats.
- Albany, New York, was selected for its inland location and accessibility by river, replacing New York City.
State capitals vary widely in population. Some, like Phoenix, Arizona, are among the largest cities in the nation (with over 1.6 million people), while others like Montpelier, Vermont, are among the smallest (fewer than 8,000 residents).
Key State Capital Developments
Pre-1800
- 1787 – Pennsylvania designates Philadelphia as state capital; later moved to Harrisburg in 1812.
- 1797 – Albany, NY becomes official capital, replacing New York City.
- 1799 – Frankfort, KY established as capital; chosen for its location along the Kentucky River.
1800–1850
- 1824 – Tallahassee, FL founded and named capital to resolve regional disputes.
- 1837 – Springfield, IL becomes the state capital; chosen over Vandalia due to Abraham Lincoln’s advocacy and centrality.
- 1839 – Austin, TX becomes capital of the Republic of Texas.
- 1846 – Des Moines, IA selected as capital for its central location, replacing Iowa City.
1850–1900
- 1854 – Sacramento, CA confirmed as permanent capital after failures in San Jose, Vallejo, and Benicia.
- 1864 – Carson City, NV becomes state capital upon Nevada’s statehood due to its mining economy and location.
- 1889 – Several new capitals are selected as new states join the Union:
- Helena, MT
- Bismarck, ND
- Pierre, SD
- Olympia, WA
- These were often selected for their proximity to railroads, political compromise, or geographic centrality.
1900–Present
- 1910 – Santa Fe, NM becomes state capital upon New Mexico’s statehood; one of the oldest cities in the U.S.
- 1912 – Phoenix, AZ becomes capital after statehood, having grown as a trade and agricultural center.
Factors That Influenced Capital Selection
1. Geographic Centrality
Many states selected capitals that were centrally located to provide equal access for all residents (e.g., Springfield, Des Moines, and Columbia, South Carolina).
2. Political Compromise
In divided or contested territories, compromise capitals were chosen to balance rival regions (e.g., Tallahassee, Harrisburg).
3. Transportation and Trade
Capitals near rivers, railroads, or later highways often became permanent due to ease of access and commercial potential (e.g., Albany, Sacramento).
4. Natural Resources and Defense
Some capitals were placed near economically vital areas (e.g., mining towns like Carson City) or areas less vulnerable to foreign invasion.
The establishment of state capital cities in the United States is a story of adaptation, compromise, and vision. Each capital reflects a unique set of circumstances—geographic, political, and cultural—that shaped its selection and evolution.
While many capitals emerged naturally due to economic strength, others were born of necessity or strategic planning. Together, they form a diverse and complex map of American governance.
While these cities not only house legislative and executive power, they also reflect the broader political, geographic, and cultural history of the United States.